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Chapter 2 Methods Of Enquiry In Psychology
Goals Of Psychological Enquiry
Like other scientific fields, psychological investigation aims to achieve specific goals related to understanding behaviour and mental processes. These goals are pursued in an objective manner and include description, prediction, explanation, control, and application of psychological knowledge.
Description: The initial goal is to accurately describe a particular behaviour or phenomenon. This involves detailing characteristics to differentiate it from others. For example, describing 'study habits' might include behaviours like attending classes, submitting assignments, planning schedules, and regular revision. Precise description is essential for proper understanding.
Prediction: Once a behaviour is accurately described and its relationship with other factors is understood, the next goal is to predict when and under what conditions that behaviour might occur. Predictions are made with a certain margin of error and become more accurate with more observations. For example, establishing a link between study time and academic achievement allows predicting that a child who studies more will likely score well.
Explanation: This goal focuses on identifying the underlying causes or determinants of a behaviour. Psychologists seek to understand *why* a behaviour happens and the conditions under which it does *not* happen. This involves establishing cause-and-effect relationships between variables (factors or events). For instance, explaining why some students are more attentive requires identifying the factors contributing to attentiveness.
Control: If the causes of a behaviour are known, it becomes possible to influence that behaviour by altering the antecedent conditions (the factors that lead to it). Control involves making a behaviour happen, reducing its occurrence, or enhancing it. Therapeutic interventions aimed at changing problematic behaviours are examples of applying psychological control.
Application: The ultimate goal of psychological enquiry is to use the generated knowledge to bring about positive changes in people's lives and contribute to solving problems in various settings. Applied psychological research aims to improve the quality of life. For example, applying knowledge of stress reduction techniques can enhance well-being and efficiency. Research also leads to new theories and constructs, stimulating further investigation.
Steps In Conducting Scientific Research
Scientific research is defined not by its subject matter but by its methodology. The scientific method involves an objective, systematic, and testable approach to studying phenomena. Objectivity means that independent observers studying the same event should arrive at similar conclusions. Systematic procedure involves following specific steps:
(An image depicting the cyclical or sequential steps of scientific enquiry, such as Conceptualising a Problem, Collecting Data, Drawing Conclusions, and Revising Research Conclusions.)
1. Conceptualising a Problem: Research begins with selecting a topic, narrowing it down to specific research questions or problems. This is guided by existing research, observations, and personal experiences. For instance, a broad interest in 'study habits' could be narrowed to 'study habits in school' and then broken down into specific behaviours like 'time spent studying' or 'assignment submission timeliness'. Psychology studies diverse problems related to individual, group, and organisational behaviour/experiences. After identifying the problem, a tentative answer or explanation, called a hypothesis, is formulated. E.g., "Greater television violence viewing is associated with higher aggression in children." The research then aims to test this hypothesis.
2. Collecting Data: This step involves designing the research study, making decisions about:
- Participants: Who will be studied (children, students, workers, etc.).
- Methods: Which research methods (observation, experiment, survey, etc.) will be used.
- Tools: What instruments (questionnaires, schedules, tests) will collect the data.
- Procedure: How the tools will be administered (individually, in groups).
3. Drawing Conclusions: Collected data are analysed using statistical procedures (like measures of central tendency, variability, correlation) or graphical representations (charts, diagrams) to understand their meaning and draw inferences. The analysis aims to verify or falsify the initial hypothesis and reach conclusions based on the findings.
4. Revising Research Conclusions: If the conclusions support the initial hypothesis, the existing theory is confirmed. If not, the hypothesis or the underlying theory may need revision, or a new hypothesis/theory might be proposed and tested with new data. This iterative process signifies that research is continuous.
Alternative Paradigms Of Research
While many psychologists follow the scientific method, treating human behaviour as predictable and measurable like phenomena in natural sciences, an alternative view, the interpretive paradigm, has emerged.
The scientific paradigm assumes human behaviour is caused by internal/external forces and can be objectively observed, measured, and controlled. It often focuses on overt behaviour and seeks causal links for prediction.
The interpretive paradigm, however, argues that human behaviour and experience are complex and variable, requiring different methods than those used for the physical world. It emphasises understanding rather than prediction or explanation of causal laws. This approach focuses on how individuals give meaning to events and interpret them within their specific context, particularly relevant for unique or subjective experiences (e.g., suffering, trauma). Objective measurement may not be possible or desirable; instead, the goal is to explore and describe different facets of human experience without disrupting its natural flow, focusing on subjective interpretations of reality.
Psychological inquiry also aims to understand the self through reflection on personal experiences and insights, acknowledging the subjective dimension of human psychology.
Nature Of Psychological Data
Psychological data is information collected from diverse sources using various methods, relating to an individual's behaviour (overt/covert), subjective experiences, and mental processes. Data approximates reality and is used to verify or falsify ideas.
It's crucial to understand that psychological data is not independent; it is located in a specific context (physical, social), influenced by the persons involved, and tied to the method and theory guiding collection. Behaviour varies depending on the situation (alone vs. group, home vs. office) and individual differences.
Different types of data are collected:
| Type of Information | Description / Examples |
|---|---|
| Demographic Information | Personal details like age, gender, education, occupation, family structure, income, caste, religion, locality. |
| Physical Information | Data about the ecological setting, housing conditions, available facilities, transportation mode, etc. |
| Physiological Data | Measurements of physical/biological states like height, weight, heart rate, fatigue, GSR, EEG activity, blood pressure, sleep patterns, reaction time, etc. |
| Psychological Information | Data related to psychological attributes like intelligence, personality, interests, values, creativity, emotions, motivation, psychological disorders, perceptual judgments, thought processes, consciousness, subjective experiences, etc. |
Psychological data can range from crude categories (high/low, yes/no) and ranks (ordinal data) to precise scores on scales. Verbal reports, observation notes, diaries, and field notes are also forms of qualitative data, requiring different analytical methods (like content analysis) than quantitative scores. Data itself doesn't speak for reality; meaning is attached through interpretation within its context.
Some Important Methods In Psychology
Psychologists employ various methods to collect data, depending on the research goal. These include Observation, Experimental, Correlational, Survey, Psychological Testing, and Case Study methods.
Observational Method
Observation is a key tool for describing behaviour. Scientific observation differs from everyday seeing by being systematic and purposeful. It involves:
- Selection: Choosing specific behaviours to observe, rather than everything.
- Recording: Systematically documenting the selected behaviour using methods like tally marks, detailed notes, photographs, or video recordings.
- Analysis: Reviewing the recorded data to interpret findings and derive meaning.
Effective observation requires skill, knowing what, who, when, where, and how to observe and record.
Types Of Observation
Observation can be categorised based on setting and the observer's role:
- Naturalistic vs. Controlled Observation: Naturalistic observation occurs in real-life settings (school, home) without observer interference or manipulation of the situation. Controlled observation (often in a laboratory) involves manipulating or controlling certain factors to focus on the behaviour of interest (e.g., introducing smoke in a controlled room, as in the Latane and Darley experiment).
- Non-Participant vs. Participant Observation: In non-participant observation, the researcher observes from a distance without joining the group, potentially using recording devices or sitting unobtrusively. A risk is that being observed might alter participants' behaviour. In participant observation, the observer becomes part of the group, establishing rapport before observing. The level of involvement varies.
Observation allows studying behaviour naturally, but can be time-consuming, labor-intensive, and prone to observer bias (interpretation influenced by values/beliefs). Objective recording of behaviour as it happens, without immediate interpretation, is recommended.
Experimental Method
Experiments are primarily used to establish cause-effect relationships between variables under controlled conditions. It involves manipulating one factor (the cause) and observing its effect on another factor (the behaviour or outcome), while keeping other potential influencing factors constant.
The Concept Of Variable
A variable is any stimulus, event, or factor that varies or takes on different values and can be measured. Objects themselves aren't variables, but their attributes are (e.g., pen is not a variable, but its shape, size, color are). Variables can be qualitative (categories) or quantitative (numerical values).
Key variables in experiments:
- Independent Variable (IV): The variable that is manipulated, altered, or whose strength is varied by the researcher. It is the presumed cause. E.g., in the smoke experiment, 'presence or absence of others' was the IV.
- Dependent Variable (DV): The variable on which the effect of the independent variable is observed. It is the presumed effect or the behaviour the researcher wants to explain. E.g., in the smoke experiment, 'frequency of reporting smoke' was the DV.
IV and DV are interdependent and chosen based on theoretical interest. Many other variables (extraneous variables) can influence the DV; these must be controlled to isolate the effect of the IV.
Experimental And Control Groups
Experiments typically involve comparing groups:
- Experimental Group(s): Members are exposed to the manipulation of the independent variable.
- Control Group(s): Members are treated identically to the experimental group(s) but are *not* exposed to the independent variable manipulation (or receive a standard/baseline condition). They serve as a comparison to determine if the IV caused the observed effect.
For a valid experiment, all conditions except the IV should be kept constant for all groups. Relevant extraneous variables (organismic like anxiety; situational like noise; sequential effects from repeated tasks) must be controlled. Techniques include elimination, holding constant, matching participants on variables, counter-balancing task order, and random assignment of participants to groups (giving each person an equal chance of being in any group) to minimise systematic differences.
Well-designed experiments provide strong evidence for cause-effect relationships. However, laboratory experiments are artificial and may lack external validity (generalisability to real life). Some problems are ethically or practically impossible to study experimentally. Controlling all relevant variables is also challenging.
Field Experiments And Quasi Experiments
To increase generalisability or study problems impractical in labs, researchers conduct:
- Field Experiments: Conducted in natural settings (school, workplace). IV is manipulated in the real environment (e.g., comparing teaching methods in classrooms). Control over variables is less precise than in a lab, and they can be more time-consuming/expensive.
- Quasi-Experiments: Used when the IV cannot be manipulated or participants cannot be randomly assigned (e.g., studying effects of an earthquake on bereaved children). The researcher selects existing groups that differ on the IV (e.g., children who lost parents vs. those who didn't, both experiencing the earthquake). The IV is selected or naturally occurring, not manipulated artificially.
Correlational Research
Correlational research examines the relationship between two variables to determine if they are associated or covary, primarily for prediction purposes. It does *not* establish cause-effect. The relationship's strength and direction are shown by the correlation coefficient, ranging from +1.0 to -1.0.
- Positive Correlation (+): Variables change in the same direction (as X increases, Y increases; as X decreases, Y decreases). E.g., More study time, higher achievement (closer to +1.0 indicates stronger positive relationship).
- Negative Correlation (-): Variables change in opposite directions (as X increases, Y decreases). E.g., More study time, less leisure time (closer to -1.0 indicates stronger negative relationship).
- Zero Correlation (0): No significant relationship between variables (e.g., -.02 or +.03 values, indicating unrelated variables).
Survey Research
Survey research is used to study opinions, attitudes, and social facts in a population (e.g., voting intentions, literacy rates, religious affiliations). It aims to find the existing reality or baseline. Surveys have evolved to infer causal relationships, though correlational methods are primarily for prediction.
Common techniques for surveys:
- Personal Interviews
- Questionnaires
- Telephonic Surveys
- Controlled Observations
Personal Interviews
Interviews involve a face-to-face interaction where an interviewer asks questions and a respondent provides information. They are used to get factual data, opinions, attitudes, and reasons for behaviour. Interviews can be conducted individually or with groups (like Focus Group Discussions - FGD) and can be face-to-face or telephonic.
Types of interviews based on structure:
- Structured/Standardised: Uses a pre-written interview schedule with clear questions in a fixed order. Responses may be closed-ended (pre-defined choices). Little flexibility for the interviewer.
- Unstructured/Non-standardised: Interviewer has flexibility in questions, wording, and sequence. Responses are open-ended, allowing respondents to answer freely.
Interviews provide in-depth information, are flexible, and usable with various populations (children, non-literate). However, they are time-consuming and potentially not cost-effective.
Questionnaire Survey
Questionnaires are low-cost, self-report methods using a predetermined set of questions. Respondents read and mark answers on paper. Similar to structured interviews, they use open-ended questions (free response) or closed-ended questions (fixed choices like Yes/No, multiple choice, rating scales). Questionnaires collect background info, past behaviour, attitudes, opinions, knowledge, expectations, etc. Mailed questionnaires often suffer from low response rates.
Surveys allow quick and efficient data collection from many people and can gauge public opinion on current issues rapidly. Limitations include potential inaccurate information (memory lapses, reluctance), biased responses (social desirability), and difficulties ensuring representativeness (especially with mailed or online surveys).
Telephone Survey
Surveys conducted via telephone (including SMS) save time. However, they lack face-to-face interaction, potentially leading to uncooperativeness, reluctance, superficial answers, and biased samples (respondents may differ systematically from non-respondents on various characteristics).
Psychological Testing
Psychological tests are used to assess individual differences in various human characteristics like intelligence, aptitude, personality, interests, attitudes, values, and achievement. They are used for selection, guidance, diagnosis, etc., in diverse settings.
A psychological test is a standardised and objective instrument to measure an individual's standing on a characteristic relative to others. Key features:
- Objectivity: Scores should be similar regardless of who administers or scores the test. Requires clear item wording, instructions, administration procedure, and scoring method.
- Standardisation: Involves developing norms by administering the test to a large representative group. Norms are average performance standards (based on age, sex, location) for comparison and interpreting individual scores.
- Reliability: Consistency of scores. Test-retest reliability shows consistency over time. Split-half reliability indicates internal consistency (items within a test measuring the same domain should correlate).
- Validity: The test must measure what it claims to measure (e.g., a math test should measure math skills, not language skills).
Test construction is a systematic process involving item analysis and estimating reliability, validity, and norms.
Types Of Tests
Tests are classified by language, administration mode, and difficulty:
| Classification | Types and Description |
|---|---|
| By Language |
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| By Mode of Administration |
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| By Difficulty Level / Time Limit |
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Psychological tests should be used cautiously, combined with other information about the person's background and history, not relied upon as a single measure.
Case Study
The case study method involves an in-depth study of a particular case. Cases can be individuals (with unique characteristics or disorders), small groups, institutions, or specific events. Researchers choose cases that offer critical information or new insights into less understood phenomena. Case studies use multiple methods (interview, observation, tests) to collect comprehensive information from various sources associated with the case.
Psychologists use case studies to explore feelings, fantasies, fears, experiences, and upbringing to understand a person's mind and behaviour, providing detailed narratives of events. Case studies are valuable in clinical psychology and human development (e.g., Freud's psychoanalytic theory, Piaget's cognitive development theory based on observing his children, studies on child socialisation). They offer rich, detailed depictions.
However, generalising from a single case study requires caution due to challenges in validity. Information should ideally be collected using multiple strategies, from diverse sources, by multiple investigators to enhance validity. Maintaining a clear chain of evidence linking data sources to research questions is also necessary.
Since each research method has limitations, combining multiple methods (triangulation) is desirable. If different methods yield convergent results, confidence in the findings increases.
Analysis Of Data
After data collection, the next step is analysis to draw conclusions. Data analysis can follow quantitative or qualitative approaches.
Quantitative Method
Quantitative methods are used when data are in numerical form, typically from closed-ended questions in tests, questionnaires, or structured interviews where responses are scaled or assigned scores. Researchers convert psychological attributes into quantities (numbers). Analysis involves using statistical procedures (mean, median, mode, standard deviation, correlation, etc.) to compare individual scores to group scores, or compare scores between groups, to make inferences and interpret the data. Mathematical and statistical tools are essential for drawing conclusions from quantitative data.
Qualitative Method
Qualitative methods are used for data that are descriptive or narrative, capturing the complexity and subjective meaning of human experiences that might be lost in quantification. Data can come from participant observation notes, unstructured interview transcripts (participants' own words), field notes, photographs, informal talks, etc.
Qualitative data cannot be statistically analysed like scores. Instead, techniques like Content Analysis are used to identify thematic categories or patterns within the data, supported by examples. Narrative analysis focuses on the structure and meaning of personal stories. Qualitative analysis is descriptive and interpretive.
Quantitative and qualitative methods are not mutually exclusive; they are complementary. Combining them can provide a more complete understanding of a phenomenon.
Limitations Of Psychological Enquiry
Psychological measurement and enquiry face certain general limitations:
- Lack of True Zero Point: Unlike physical measurements that start from an absolute zero (e.g., 0 length), psychological measurements lack a true zero point (e.g., no one has zero intelligence). Zero points are arbitrarily decided on scales. Scores obtained are therefore relative, not absolute. Even ranks (1st, 2nd, 3rd) represent relative positions, not equal intervals of the attribute being measured.
- Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tests and tools are developed within specific socio-cultural contexts. A tool designed for one context (e.g., urban setting in the West) may not be appropriate or valid for another context (e.g., tribal area in India) without proper adaptation and modification, as items may require familiarity with specific cultural stimuli.
- Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Qualitative data relies heavily on interpretation by both the data provider and the researcher. Interpretations can vary between individuals, introducing subjectivity. To enhance reliability in qualitative studies, it is often recommended that multiple investigators conduct fieldwork and discuss their observations to reach agreement. Involving participants in interpreting the data can also be beneficial.
Ethical Issues
Since psychological research involves studying human behaviour, researchers must adhere to certain ethical or moral principles to protect participants. Key ethical principles:
- Voluntary Participation: Individuals must freely choose whether to participate in a study without any pressure or undue reward. They must also have the freedom to withdraw at any point without penalty.
- Informed Consent: Potential participants must be given sufficient information about the study's nature, purpose, procedures, risks, and benefits *before* they agree to participate. This allows them to make an informed decision. This is crucial when studies involve potential discomfort, private information, or techniques like deception (providing false information or feedback).
- Debriefing: After the study concludes, participants should be provided with complete and accurate information about the research, especially if deception was used. Debriefing aims to restore participants' physical and mental state to how it was before the study, explaining the use of deception and addressing any adverse effects or anxiety caused.
- Sharing the Results of the Study: Researchers have a moral obligation to share the findings of the study with the participants after the data has been analysed. This fulfils participants' expectations and can sometimes provide new insights to the researcher based on participants' feedback on the results.
- Confidentiality of Data Source: Participants have a right to privacy. Researchers must keep the information provided by participants strictly confidential and use it only for research purposes. Identifying information (names) should ideally not be recorded or should be kept separately and destroyed after the research is completed to protect anonymity.
Adhering to these ethical guidelines ensures that psychological research is conducted responsibly and respects the dignity and rights of the participants.
Key Terms
Case study, Confidentiality, Control group, Correlational research, Data, Debriefing, Dependent variable, Experimental group, Experimental method, Group test, Hypothesis, Independent variable, Individual test, Interview, Negative correlation, Norms, Objectivity, Observation, Performance tests, Positive correlation, Power test, Psychological test, Qualitative method, Quantitative method, Questionnaire, Reliability, Speed test, Structured interview, Survey, Unstructured interview, Validity, Variable
Summary
Psychological research aims to describe, predict, explain, control behavior, and apply findings objectively. It involves conceptualizing a problem, collecting data, analyzing data, and revising conclusions/theory.
Beyond scientific methods, an interpretive paradigm focuses on understanding subjective meanings and experiences in context.
Psychological data includes demographic, environmental, physical, physiological, and psychological information, always tied to context, method, and theory.
Methods include observation (naturalistic/controlled, participant/non-participant) for description; experimental method (using independent/dependent variables, experimental/control groups, field experiments, quasi-experiments) for cause-effect relationships; correlational research for predicting associations (+ve, -ve, zero correlation); survey research (interviews, questionnaires, telephone) for studying opinions/facts; psychological tests (standardized, objective, reliable, valid, normed) for assessing individual differences; and case studies for in-depth investigation of specific instances.
Data is analyzed using quantitative (statistical procedures for numerical data) or qualitative (content analysis for descriptive data) methods, often used complementarily.
Limitations include lack of true zero point, relative nature of tools, and subjective interpretation of qualitative data.
Ethical guidelines require voluntary participation, informed consent, debriefing, sharing results, and confidentiality of data.